A Critique On Race The Power Of Illusion And A Few Readings

A Critique on RACE: The Power of Illusion and a Few Readings An ideology or a belief system toward a group of people usually originates from economic need for labor and the distribution of resources. Who will provide the labor with little reward and who will benefit from that labor with little manual labor characterizes many cultural dynamics and institutions. Racism, especially in the U.S., isn’t exempt from this construction, for races is a social construction emerging from power fluctuations that results in an unequal resource distribution. Racial ideology provides reason for the race illusion and in turn strengthens it enough for it to become subtle and seemingly fundamental to American policy, both public and private. The three-part film RACE: The Power of an Illusion, an anthropology textbook Cultural Anthropology: A Toolkit for a Global Age written by Kenneth Guest, Leith Mullings’ article Trayvon Martin, Race, and Anthropology, and Elson Boles’ entry Ruth Benedict’s Japan: the Benedictions of Imperialism all give voice historically and scientifically to explain, not justify, and hopefully inspire the public to work to erase racial prejudice. All of these works expose contemporary American society’s discrimination to combat the â€Å"color-blind† ideology that Kendja 2 threatens to bury the restrictions existing in the legal and economic institutions, just as it had all throughout American history. In the colonial era, the question to answer was economical:Show MoreRelatedHip Hop Wars By Tricia Rose3817 Words   |  16 Pagesaction and to the power of media seduction† (p. 73). 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Despite this difference of scale, the disharmonies are much the same. Unity and intimacy areRead MoreSociety : A Realm Of Doubt2191 Words   |  9 Pagesâ€Å"A bloody deed – almost as bad, good Mother, / As kill a king, and marry with his brother.† Similarly, Don Quixote in Cervantes’ Don Quixote demonstrates just how surreal and fallacious one’s existence can be. Throughout the work, Don Quixote’s illusion of reality, or, in other words, his delusion, becomes his actual reality. His ability to transform the ordinary into more spectacular, fantastic interpretations compels the people around him to decide between adapting to his imaginary world or opposingRead MoreCan the Subaltern Speak9113 Words   |  37 Pagescontemporary relations of power, and of the Western intellectuals role within them, requires an examination of the intersection of a theory of representation and the political economy of global capitalism. A theory of representation points, on the one hand, to the domain of ideology, meaning, and subjectivity, and, on the other hand, to the domain of politics, the state, and the law. The original title of this paper was Power, Desire, Interest.1 Indeed, whatever power these meditations commandRead More From Western to Asian Environmental Ethics Essay example3991 Words   |  16 Pagesdisastrous results, destroying native populations. Extermination of species is not only a question of aesthetics, but may be a key to human survival. Of the thousands of varieties of grain cultivated or harvested by humans until the 19th century, only a few dozen remain in wide circulation — and some of these are hybrids with heavy fertilizer-dependence and little ability to reproduce. As desertification, salinification, acid rain and global warming change the climatic parameters for world agricultureRead MoreEssay on Postmodernism and Social Praxis4522 Words   |  19 Pagesto the concept she utilizes for her theology. Foucaults is a drastic suspicion, a total and continuous skepticism which repeatedly serves as an alarm to the genealogist. Its purpose is to make the scholar cognizant of the undeniable link between power and knowledge. It is a reminder that there exists no absolute Truth on which a discourse confidently may be established. In Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, Foucault tra ces the history of what is deemed the liberationRead MoreContemporary Management Issues9330 Words   |  38 Pages Chapter for Paradoxical New Directions in Organization and Management Theory. Edited by Stewart Clegg. Amsterdam: Benjamins. (Second Draft) July 2001 The problem of whether employee resistance is possible under corporate relations of power that target the very hearts and minds of workers has become an increasingly important issue in recent critical organization studies. With the advent of ‘cultural cleansing (Strangleman and Roberts, 1999), ‘designer selves (Casey, 1995) and otherRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Othello : Race And Performance6373 Words   |  26 PagesPAGE 1 Pass Ilari Pass ENGL 400 Seminar: Literature and Ethics Hood 7 November 2014 Barbary Horse: Race and Performance in Othello Ethics never went out of fashion in philosophy. It did, however, in literary studies. In Critical Terms for Literary Study, Geoffrey Galt Harpham asks, ?What is ethics? The answers to this simple inquiry are complexity itself, for they take us straight to the decentered center of ethics, its concern for ?the other (394). According to Harpham, Read More Visions of The Primitive in Langston Hughes’s The Big Sea Essay examples6201 Words   |  25 Pagestowed up the Hudson to Jonas Point a few days after I boarded her and put at anchor with eighty or more other dead ships of a similar nature, and there we stayed all winter. ...[T]here were no visitors and I almost never went ashore. Those long winter nights with snow swirling down the Hudson, and the old ships rocking and creaking in the wind, and the ice scraping and crunching against their sides, and the steam hissing in the radiators were ideal for reading. I read all the ship’s library. (HughesRead MoreThe Function of Criticism at the Present Time12631 Words   |  51 Pagesitself it really is. I added, that owing to the operation in English litera− ture of certain causes, almost the last thing for which one would come to English literature is just that very thing which now Europe most desires−−criticism; and that the power and value of English literature was thereby impaired. More than one rejoinder declared that the importance I here assigned to criticism was excessive, and asserted the inherent superiority of the creative effort of the human spirit over its critical

Literary Analysis Essay - 1382 Words

Literary Analysis Author James Joyce has written many short stories which were composed to explain Dublin’s way of life. The book is known to his readers as Dubliners. His short stories have been written to help readers understand the many different feelings that were established in Dublin during a time of crisis. During this time in Dublin many changes were occurring and the city was rebuilding from the tragic potato famine and certainly rebuilding as a country. In three certain stories, â€Å"The Sisters†, â€Å"An Encounter†, and â€Å"The Dead,† the literary symbols of escape and journey appear within individuals which are always trying to run from the problems of society. These actions taken help understand why the characters have†¦show more content†¦After Father Flynn had died the young boy said, â€Å"I knew that the old priest was lying still in his coffin as we had seen him, solemn and truculent in death† (10). The boy knows that he has gone away to escape the life and now is journeying far from Dublin and its worries. Clearly, â€Å"The Sisters† shows ways that escaping the reality of Dublin through journeys have occurred for these characters. In the story of â€Å"An Encounter,† one also can view the literary themes of escape through certain journeys taken. The boys in the story are always trying to escape reality in everyday life: â€Å"The adventures related in the literature of the Wild West were remote from my nature but, at least, they opened doors of escape† (11). No matter what the circumstances are, it’s a natural habit for the boys just to think about getting away and forgetting about responsibilities. For example, the boy in the story explains, â€Å"Every evening after school we met in his back garden and arranged Indian battlesâ€Å"(11). Continuing their escape the boys plan to cut school and journey away from Dublin to seek real adventure: â€Å"But real adventures, I reflected, do not happen to people whom remain at home: they must be sought abroad† (12). They find escape through their adventures, fleeing from home and journeying as far as they can. Even though the y are individuals, they go together to escape from reality from the present times of Dublin. In theShow MoreRelatedEssay on Literary Analysis on Revelation794 Words   |  4 Pages Literary Analysis â€Å"Revelation† Flannery O’Connor short story entitled â€Å"Revelation† was swayed by her personal upbringing in the South. She lived in the time where people from the South were very intolerant and narrow-minded towards people who had a different lifestyle and who were of a different race. Because Southerners believed people who did not live up to their wealth or status were inferior, it offered O’Connor the exact descriptions she wanted for the characters in this story. The mainRead MoreLiterary Analysis : An Inspector Calls 2046 Words   |  9 Pagescriticism: examines literature in the cultural, economic and political context in which it is written or received,† exploring the relationships between the artist and society. Sometimes it examines the artist’s society to better understand the author’s literary works; other times, it may examine the representation of such societal elements within the literature itself (Social Criticism) An example of this would be how in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain, Huck goes against what society wantsRead MoreThe Joseph Narrative: Literary Analysis and the Role of God5196 Words   |  21 PagesThe Joseph Narrative: Literary Analysis and the Role of God The Joseph narrative can be found in the book of Genesis chapters 37-50. It is slightly interrupted â€Å"by the story of Judah and Tamar (Gen. 38) and by the so-called Blessing of Jacob (Gen. 49:1-28)† (Skinner, 438). The story of Joseph is seen as unique because it has different characteristics than its counterparts in Genesis. Other writings in Genesis seem to be short, brief incidents, about family and tribal affairs. The Joseph narrativeRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of A Very Old Man With Enormous Wings1264 Words   |  6 PagesLiterary Analysis: A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings: A Tale for Children â€Å"A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings: A Tale for Children† which was written in 1955 by Gabriel Garcà ­a Mà ¡rquez has been described by many as difficult to understand and hard to follow. Faulkner describes it as having a â€Å"charming (but unsettling) effect† (1) on readers. Raney says that the story leaves most readers not fully understanding it because it uses a â€Å"subtler irony† (108) that â€Å"whispers† (108) to them and that itRead MoreAnalytical analysis and comparism of an everyday text with a literary text3840 Words   |  16 Pagesï » ¿Choose one every day and one literary text. Using at least two analytical techniques from E301, analyze and compare your two texts in terms of their creativity and literariness, drawing on material from both parts of the module. In this paper I will analyze and compare a literary text and an everyday text, in terms of their creativity and literariness. I chose Philip Larkin’s (1964) poem, ‘Self’s the man’ (see Appendix, Text 1), as the literary text for analysis because it is not only smooth andRead MoreLiterary Analysis Collection : Themes, Characters, Conflict, And Setting2046 Words   |  9 PagesLiterary Analysis Collection 1 Theme, characters, conflict, and setting are literary terms that are essential to any story you may read. Each literary term is important to the development of the plot, or the order of events in a story. The lesson or moral that you take away from the story is the theme. The time and place in which the story happens is the setting. The conflict is the issue or the main problem in a story. The characters are just the people who are involved in the conflict. All fourRead MoreA Streetcar Named Desire, Literary Analysis Essay733 Words   |  3 PagesStreetcar Named Desire written by Tennessee Williams exemplifies the theme of a struggle to attain happiness. The play not only portrays this theme in its characters and setting, but through the literary devices of Foil, Imagery, and Intertextuality. Williams took great care in applying each of these literary device techniques to the theme as he presents an intriguing contrast between Blanche and Stanley, vivid images both animalistic and b roken, and imploring the use of the Odyssey to further deepenRead MoreLiterary Analysis and Comparison of A Persistent Woman And Uncle Ernest495 Words   |  2 PagesLiterary Analysis and Comparison of A Persistent Woman And Uncle Ernest I have chosen to compare and analyse the openings of A persistent woman and Uncle Ernest because the both authors have used similar literary techniques to try and make the reader read on but it in very different ways. For example both extracts describe the main characters (Uncle Ernest and Temple) but in Uncle Ernest this is very explicit, describing his appearance in great detail. Just fromRead More Literary Analysis of ?The Grandfather? by Gary Soto Essay examples846 Words   |  4 PagesMarwski, Daniel G., Ed. Contemporary Literary Criticism vol. 80. Detroit : Gale Research Co., 1987. 275. Meire, Matt S. Mexican American Biographies: A Historical Dictionary 1836-1987. New York: Greenwood Press, 1988. 216. Soto, Gary and Ernest Trejo. Interview. â€Å"Revista Chicano-Riqueà ±a.† 1982. Contemporary Literary Criticism vol. 80. Ed. Daniel G. Marwski. Detroit : Gale Research Co., 1987. 278-281. Stine, Jean C. and Daniel G. Marwski., Ed. Contemortry Literary Criticism vol. 32. Detroit: GaleRead MoreReader, Readability And Relativity In The Criticism Of Propp, Barthes, And Fish Literary Analysis1095 Words   |  5 Pagescanonical quality, what meaning can be derived from that text, and who exactly makes these types of decisions? Welcome to the world of literary criticism, where the approach to the text and the level of reader inclusion varies based upon the school a critic identifies with in his endeavor and/or the individual reader may happen to take most interest in the act of literary analysis. While the Socratic-like formalistic approach of Vladimir Propp, the lavish laymen s poetic deconstruction of Roland Barthes

A Philosophy on English Education Free Essays

Education is a philosophy within itself without even responding to the different categories of a student’s learning day. English education is, in my opinion, kind of a shady subject. When one talks about their English class, what aspects are they talking about? Is this referring to the grammar sections, the vocabulary sections or the criticizing of novels? Through the use of grammar a person can increase the way others perceive what they are writing. We will write a custom essay sample on A Philosophy on English Education or any similar topic only for you Order Now In my opinion it is not the way something is written that is important, but the content of what is written. Vocabulary is another such device. It is said that a person can feel only what they can express. In other languages around the world, there are words that put more emphasis on the same word. For example the word love, in the English language means one thing. Wether it is toward a mother or toward a spouse it has one meaning. Now is the love you feel for a mother the same as for the love you feel for a spouse? No, and in other languages there is a difference between these two emotions. If a person cannot express the way they feel how can they feel this way? I feel vocabulary is an asset that needs to be cultivated in order for a person to evolve into an educated person of society. The other aspect of English education however is not as particular as the other two. The analysis of literature is in itself a whole philosophy as well. It is a way for a person to open their mind into different thoughts that would not have been open to them otherwise. The idea of group leaning is for different ideas and interpretations to be presented. I believe this is a main part of English education. I believe the purpose of education is to better a persons life through knowledge and assist them later in life. Education is a vital part of anyone’s life. Without it a person could not get a job and make it in the real life. I believe however that teachers must keep in mind that one’s education is up to the individual student. A teacher should support the student, as well as the student supporting the teacher. If a student feels that a specific assignment or subject is unneeded then it should be reviewed. If it is vital the teacher should simply explain why the assignment in necessary, and the student will then have the desire to do the task at hand. Education is a vital part of my life. I believe that I have the materials to go far in life but without the knowledge base that is given in a learning atmosphere such as school, this will not be possible. I would however like to be given the choice of what to learn instead of being forced to do certain activities. Young people today do not like to read. Why is this? I believe is it because all their lives books and school have been shoved down their throat by teachers and professors who do not care about the student’s desires and opinions. My personal feelings on the English language are stated above. I feel that there are not enough words in the language and therefor people of different cultures have language differences as well as differences in the way they think. I believe many English teachers are forced to presaent the curriculem in a repetitious tedious manner. I believe that there is too much emphasis put on writing and grammar and not enough on oral presentation and giving students the skills they will need later on in life. The ability to stand in front of someone and present one’s feelings or opinions is a necessary ability for one to have. If a student can explain in detail orally what they have learned without writing it in a formal paper, that should be just as sufficient. As I said before, I believe its not the way a person states something that is important, but what is being stated. Regardless of this short bashing of mine, I do not want you to feel this is my perception of you. This is my past experiences with English teachers and the way they presented themselves and the material to the class. In no way do I feel bias to your thoughts or ideas. I look forward to many interesting conversations and debates in your class. I realize that my desires are not realistic and formal papers must be written in order for a teacher to be able to evaluate each student in an organized and timely manner. How to cite A Philosophy on English Education, Papers

The Impact and Influence of Business Ethics free essay sample

If the employee is in financial crisis at home, they may resort to unethical behaviors of stealing from the company to provide for their family, which they never think to do in normal circumstances. There is a high percentage of people who claim they do not report unethical behavior, and it is known that fear of retribution influences many employees (Kinicki Kreitner, 2009). Organization leadership is also a strong influence on employees, and employees who see unethical behaviors in leadership may believe that situational ethics is acceptable.Knowing how important strong ethics are to the sustainability of the organization and how difficult it is to control and manage individual ethical choices, how then can the organization positively influence and encourage ethical behaviors in all levels of the employee and management structure? How can leadership encourage ethical decision-making even with all the external forces such as political environment, organization culture, and personal culture? First and foremost, leaders need to be role models of ethical behaviors and decision-making. We will write a custom essay sample on The Impact and Influence of Business Ethics or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page From the CEO and top management tiers needs to come a specific, detailed, and enforced standard of ethical conduct. Critical importance has been attributed to ethical leadership and high levels of integrity. Management duties come with an ethical obligation to promote integrity in ethical decision making, to assist and educate employees on this process, and to set a culture of rewarding ethical behavior (Paine, 1994). Management is faced with multiple ethical dimensions every day from how to manage the emotions of the employees (Fulmer Barry, 2009) to how to manage finances and political constituents.Management needs to lead by example in all these areas if they wish their reports to do the same and if they wish to project and enact a face of ethical importance on the organization. Leaders need to put in writing the organization value statements, corporate credos, and codes of ethics, and then instill these values into the entire organization through education, training, compliance monitoring, and role-modeling (O’Rourke, 2010). Before rolling out change processes or making decisions, leaders should recognize and evaluate any ethical issues and strategize decisions based on the c ompany code of ethics and values.When disseminating the change processes and decision statements to employees, leaders should discuss any ethical implications and how and why decisions were made so that employees can hear and learn the ethical issues that were taken into consideration. â€Å"Being ethical takes effort and leadership . . . it’s important to continually remind ourselves that ethical conduct must always be at the forefront of our thinking, planning, and action† (Soloway Chvotkin, 2007, p. 12). Take for example, the recent case of Johnson Johnson addressing ethical issues as described in the Wall Street Journal (Rockoff, 2011, March 31).Johnson Johnson is the parent company of McNeil Consumer Healthcare that has been troubled with quality and manufacturing issues. These issues have prompted multiple recalls of consumer health items such as Tylenol and baby foods in excess of $900 million and damaging the quality reputation of Johnson Johnson. Johnson Johnson is responding to the ethical disturbance by taking immediate action to repair psychological and financial damages via leadership reorganization, operationalizing a stringent process for quality planning and monitoring, and separating itself from McNeil, which will now be its own organization.Johnson Johnson also engaged the employees to explain the reasons for all the changes and stated that the goal was to give focused attention to quality and compliance and the reputation of the products. Ethical behavior and values is vital to the health of every organization and needs to be role-modeled from the top down, no matter how difficult the process might be. â€Å"Organizational climate, role models, structure, and rewards all can point employees in the right direction† (Kanicki Kreitner, 2009).

A Definition and Introduction to Ergonomics

A Definition and Introduction to Ergonomics Ergonomics is a term thrown around by health professionals and marketing mavens with a cavalier attitude. For some, it has a very specific meaning. For others, it covers everything under the sun. With all this different verbiage flying at you, you are probably starting to wonder, â€Å"What is Ergonomics?† Definition of Ergonomics Ergonomics derives from two Greek words: ergon, meaning work, and nomoi, meaning natural laws, to create a word that means the science of work and a person’s relationship to that work. The International Ergonomics Association has adopted this technical definition: ​ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance. That is not the most efficient definition of what ergonomics is. Let us keep things simple. Ergonomics is the science of making things comfy. It also makes things efficient. And when you think about it, comfy is just another way of making things efficient. However, for simplicity, ergonomics makes things comfortable and efficient. What Is the Study of Ergonomics? At its simplest definition ergonomics, it  literally means the science of work. So ergonomists, i.e. the practitioners of ergonomics, study work, how work is done and how to work better. It is the attempt to make work better that ergonomics becomes so useful. And that is also where making things comfortable and efficient comes into play. Ergonomics is commonly thought of in terms of products. But it can be equally useful in the design of services or processes. It is used in design in many complex ways. However, what you, or the user, is most concerned with is, â€Å"How can I use the product or service, will it meet my needs, and will I like using it?† Ergonomics helps define how it is used, how it meets your needs, and most importantly if you like it. It makes things comfy and efficient. What Is Comfort? Comfort is much more than a soft handle. Comfort is one of the greatest aspects of a design’s effectiveness. Comfort in the human-machine interface and the mental aspects of the product or service is a primary ergonomic design concern. Comfort in the human-machine interface is usually noticed first. Physical comfort in how an item feels is pleasing to the user. If you do not like to touch it, you wont. If you do not touch it, you will not operate it. If you do not operate it, then it is useless.​ The utility of an item is the only true measure of the quality of its design. The job of any designer is to find innovative ways to increase the utility of a product. Physical comfort while using an item increases its utility. Making an item intuitive and comfortable to use will ensure its success in the marketplace.   The mental aspect of comfort in the human-machine interface is found in feedback. You have preconceived notions of certain things. A quality product should feel like it is made out of quality materials. If it is lightweight and flimsy, you will not feel that comfortable using it. The look, feel, use, and durability of a product help you make a mental determination about a product or service. Basically, it lets you evaluate the quality of the item and compare that to the cost. Better ergonomics mean better quality, which means you will be more comfortable with the value of the item. What Is Efficiency? Efficiency is quite simply making something easier to do. Efficiency comes in many forms, however.​ Reducing the strength required makes a process more physically efficient.Reducing the number of steps in a task makes it quicker (i.e. efficient) to complete.Reducing the number of parts makes repairs more efficient.Reducing the amount of training needed, i.e. making it more intuitive, gives you a larger number of people who are qualified to perform the task. Imagine how inefficient trash disposal would be if your teenage child wasnt capable of taking out the garbage. Efficiency can be found almost everywhere. If something is easier to do, you are more likely to do it. If you do it more, then it is more useful. Again, the utility is the only true measure of the quality of a design. And if you willingly do something more often, you have a greater chance of liking it. If you like doing it, you will be more comfortable doing it. So the next time you hear the term ergonomics, you will know what it means to you. And, hopefully, that is a comforting thought.

Age Discrimination Against Elderly Workers Social Work Essays

Age Discrimination Against Elderly Workers Social Work Essays Age Discrimination Against Elderly Workers Social Work Essay Age Discrimination Against Elderly Workers Social Work Essay In this fact sheet, I will discourse approximately age favoritism against aged workers in Singapore and travel into how they are treated otherwise in the society in unemployment and employment province. This is to happen out whether the immature workers have an unjust advantage over aged worker with regard to employment and salary chance. The facets that lead to the job of age favoritism will besides be covered in this paper. The authorities stance and public perceptual experiences show on how to undertake the job. There are many illustrations of bias and inequality in our society and in the universe we live in. These biass can take to favoritism and create breaks in society and state of affairss where people are denied entree to be rights enjoyed by others. Discrimination against individuals of a certain age group is one of the illustrations that should be focused on, where age was instanced as the top ground for favoritism with the per centum of 29 % . Age Discrimination in Singapore Aged workers are normally the 1 neglected and receive an unjust intervention in footings of employment. Employers can know apart by age across several countries such as rewards, publicities, hiring, firing and layoff and force retirement. The ground why I choose this peculiar community is that there is still strong favoritism against aged worker. In fact, most of the aged workers ever face some troubles in happening occupations which disadvantaged them in their societal lives. Most occupation demands prefer younger workers as they think older workers lack or energy, flexibleness, or adaptability compared to younger worker and yet there is no any legal action takes from the authorities, against employers who discriminate. Furthermore, the employers may believe that aged workers are unable to work on the Information Technology or may given the alibis of excessively slow in working advancement and therefore, utilizing this as a ground to reject or plunder them. The employers are besides seeking to utilize the ground of hapless work public presentation although the chief ground of firing the aged worker is age favoritism. Deduction of Age Discrimination Aging population is one of the jobs that ever concern in Singapore. As figure of aged people keeps increasing, the employment and unemployment issues might increase excessively. Therefore, it has ever been a sensitive issue when it comes to supplying employment to people of different age. If the unemployment issue happens to the aged people, they will get down to experience inferior where they are unable to supply household income and future fiscal security. Therefore, this might go a sort of load towards their kids or the authorities. The chief job faced by the aged worker is the wellness and physical conditions. These are the obstruction that faced by the aged worker when happening occupation. Problem faced by employed senior citizens Troubles faced by senior citizens seeking work From the tabular array above, we are able to cognize that there is a high per centum of foresee troubles in occupation hunt with the norm of 90 % in the age of 55 and supra. Furthermore, there are some grounds that caused them in troubles in occupation hunt which relates to their age, occupation available excessively physically and mentally demanding, under-qualified and working distance between place and company. The chief ground of troubles in seeking work is because of their age with the norm of 85 % in the age of 55 and supra. Research Example The address by Mr. Lim Boon Heng, Minister for Prime Minister s Office said that there was an issue reference about the troubles in happening occupation. In malice of that, a common of complaint heard in the society is I want to work, I can work, but no 1 will engage me one time they know my age . Or it will be the instance that first to be interviewed the older worker but last to be hired. Inequality in Age Discrimination Aged workers are more in danger to occupation loss and longer unemployment enchantments, although they have lower turnover and unemployment compared with their younger opposite numbers. This is where inequality occurs to aged worker in society. In June 2009, the sum of employment in the mean age of 40 ( 255,200 ) is greater than the age of 55 and above ( 150,700 ) . This shows that the aged people have the lower figure in employment which disadvantages the aged people when seeking occupation. Gross Monthly Income from Work The bulk of the aged who were employed in 2009 Drew gross monthly income of less than $ 1,500 ( 33.8 % for those between 65 and 69 old ages old and 44.2 % for those 70 old ages old and above ) falling into the $ 500- $ 900. Compared to the younger worker, the income for aged worker is instead low. Government Stance and Public Perceptions The authorities works with NTUC and the Singapore National Employers Federation ( SNEF ) to put up a tripartite commission to travel into favoritism jobs, known as Tripartite Alliance for Fair Employment Practices ( TAFEP ) . This commission has created with revised guidelines on non-discriminatory occupation advertizements and a figure of public and private sector employers pledged to follow with the non-discriminatory patterns. Beside authorities stance, employers should avoid age bound or age scope in the occupation notice and doing age an built-in portion of the application procedure. Training and development is besides an of import point to forestall favoritism against aged worker where it encourages all employees to take the preparation chances. This preparation chance allows aged worker manages to catch up the Information Technology. One of the suggestions to forestall the issue of age favoritism against aged worker will be created a regulation that certain figure of aged worker should use in the company. This is to avoid the jobs of inequality against aged worker in the society. Therefore, the figure of employment in a company should be every bit for both younger and aged worker. Re-employment creates a win-win state of affairs for employers and older employees in Singapore. Compare to raising the statutory retirement age, it offers greater flexibleness. On the other manus, harmonizing to preliminary findings from 2009 study by Ministry of Manpower, the huge bulk of 92 % of them were allowed to go on to work beyond the age of 62. 60 % who were allowed to go on to work beyond 62 and 30 % who were offered re-employment. These determination shows that they still value older worker. As Ralph B. Perry said Age should non hold its face lifted, but it should instead learn the universe to look up to furrows as the etchings of experience and the steadfast line of character. Decision In decision, occupation favoritism against aged worker in Singapore still exists and the authorities and public perceptual experiences have been seeking really hard to work out and forestall the issue of occupation favoritism against aged worker. The occupation favoritism creates inequality in term of age group. This may do societal tenseness and endanger to Singapore aging population. The determination shows that there is noticeable age favoritism as the employment rate for older worker is non really high. However, there is still a determination that shows the employers do value older worker, this might non be a strong solution and unable to prolong in the hereafter. In order to forestall or work out the job of favoritism against aged worker, Singaporeans should follow what the authorities stance and public perceptual experiences that applied or suggested to the issue, where the solution given might workable in some ways.

Define hate crime and the personal and social impact Essay

Define hate crime and the personal and social impact - Essay Example opinion with respect to whether or not current â€Å"hate crime† law is either beneficial or detrimental to the system of criminal justice that exists within the United Kingdom. It is further hope of this author that such a level of discussion will be beneficial in shedding of understanding with respect to crimes, is the further intention of this author to engage the reader with an appreciation of the fact for how crime and its interpretation/punishment has more and the ball with changes to society. In terms of definition and understanding, it is essential to appreciate the fact that hate crimes have both a personal and societal impact. The personal impact is with respect to the way in which hate crimes impact upon the perpetrator as well as the victim (Gillis, 2013). The impact upon the perpetrator oftentimes congeals to make them even more prejudiced than they might have been before; sometimes regardless of whether or not punishment was ever provided for the crime. Furthermore, hate crimes can have the impact of altering the world-view of the victim, causing panic attacks, and fundamentally changing the way that they engage with individuals in the future. Because of these effects, legislators and policymakers attempted to increase the overall penalties that are involved with respect to the crimes. The goal of this particular approach is to create a situation in which the crimes are strong enough to dissuade individuals are ever perpetrated Pfc. However, the fundamental shortcoming with respect to this particular approach has to do with the fact that many individuals do not respond to the threat of increased criminal penalties prior to engaging in whatever form of criminal behavior that they might be about to perpetrate (Spieldenner & Glenn, 2014). As such, the increased level of penalties for the crimes has become somewhat disproportionate with regard to other severe crimes that are oftentimes underage to a lesser degree; this is especially true in places

My Leadership Action Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

My Leadership Action Plan - Essay Example Do you love the work you do? Are you driven by your purpose? Is there a connection to your top priorities and your leadership approaches? Do you enjoy your time in helping others be successful? What is your legacy to the world? My main purpose as a Leader: (Bungay, 2011). My leadership purpose is also to fill particular needs. My areas to strengthen and grow:I need to stop needing to be loved or liked by my followers (Bungay, 2011). I also need to improve in my stagnancy and always remain focused on my goals. As a leader, I need to avoid excessive connectivity with my followers especially when it comes to mobile devices and other modes of communication (Bradt, Check, & Pedraza, 2011). I also need to try as much as I can to trust my employees with the responsibilities that I give them. I need to learn ways through which I can overcome my personal constraints. I also need to learn how to accomplish my goals after coming up with visions. I need to develop specific conflict resolution sk ills (Bungay, 2011).

SLP 4 When a company does not have a large IT department Essay

SLP 4 When a company does not have a large IT department - Essay Example Information System Planning and Selection for the company that is represented in this particular case study wholeheartedly claims that they have readily available functional specialists to assist customers that their services consist of, "information system (ERP) needs analysis, functional specifications, development of a Request For Proposal, evaluation of responses, vendor selection, and contract negotiations. For existing information systems, we will assess current performance and expectations against end-user needs, and develop short term and long term plans for improvement" (Education, 2008). With regard to higher education (which is their specialty), here are several projects that a prospective customer can choose from when it comes to Information System Planning and Selection. ... Judging from their list, they offer a lot more as far as services as our company does. Leveraging a powerful combination of the best industry-proven practices and leading standards, strategic vision, a vast spectrum of technical and technological competencies, Softerra offers its clients a comprehensive suite of IT services including Strategic Business Planning, Software Consulting, Software Design, Project Management Resources, Re-engineering, Software Upgrades and Website Enhancement, and Rapid Application Development, Custom Software Development, Custom Web Application and Development, Custom Database Design along with Development and Marketing, PDA Software Development, Custom Web Page Design and Original Artwork, and Information Technology Consulting. This is not an all-inclusive list, which is even more impressive (EduTech, 2008). The third directly competing company that was located was IBS. "IBS relevant IT consulting services to mid-size and Fortune 500 companies alike" (Softerra, 2008). Their main competencies include .NET and Java Development and Integration, Custom Development Solutions, Data Management Solutions, Information Worker Solutions, Advanced Infrastructure Solutions, Advanced Infrastructure Solutions, and more. A particularly intriguing company was Gatesix. They are known as a virtual consulting firm, serving the online community. According to their website: A smart company concentrates on its core business competency and leaves other tasks to those with specific expertise. Let the specialists at Gatesix save your company valuable timewith expert technology consulting. Our consulting staff will help smooth your

Effect of Human Resources on Global Expansion of MNCs

Effect of Human Resources on Global Expansion of MNCs MBA Literature review The Relevance of Innovative Human Resource Programs to Facilitate Global Expansion of Multinational Companies (MNCs) from the UK. 2. Introduction The activities of multinational companies (MNCs) are at the heart of Britains internationally open and global economy. This global economy has emerged as companies all over the world are joining forces through alliances, mergers, joint ventures, acquisitions, and the like, thus creating the need for a constant mobile workforce and the HRM strategies to support and develop it. This would therefore imply a fundamental shift in the role of human resources from transaction and administration to strategy and business transformation through innovative programmes which supports the global strategy of the company. This section gives an overview of the literature review and the theoretical basis for the forthcoming chapters. The chapter consists of journals, books and research materials which throw more light into Innovative Human Resource Programs to Facilitate Global Expansion of Multinational Companies (MNCs) from the UK. The following were the primary information sources used for the literature review; ACM Digital Library Pro-Quest Direct EBSCO Publishing Gale Group Info Track OCLC First-Search Java Sun Microsystems Library IEEE Library Emerald Database 2.1 Evolution from Personnel Management to HRM According to Guest (1987), the origins of the traditional concept of personnel management can be traced to the post World War One welfare tradition of concern for the basic needs of employees. The developing and mature phases of personnel management from the 1940s to the 1970s saw an increase in the status and professionalism accorded to the personnel function, particularly in relation to industrial relations (IR) matters (see Sparrow 2004). The concept of HRM, as a new strategic approach to the management of people, evolved in the early 1980s (Ericksen 2005). Its evolution was influenced by a range of factors, including increased competitive pressures caused by deregulation and globalisation, and the influence of notable academics in the US and the UK (Ericksen, 2005). Although it has been suggested that HRM may be no more than old style personnel management with a new name (Gunnigle and Flood, 1990), Storey (1992) identifies four features of HRM which distinguish it from traditional personnel management: it is explicitly linked with corporate strategy; it seeks to obtain the commitment of employees rather than their compliance; employee commitment is obtained through an integrated approach to human resource policies (for example, reward, appraisal, selection, training); and unlike personnel management, which is primarily the domain of specialists, HRM is owned by line managers as a means of fostering integration. 2.1.1 Approaches to Human Resource Management 2.1.1.1 Hard Approach If an organisation focuses on control of resources and achievement of strategy, it may adopt a hard approach to HRM (see Storey, 1989) in which employees are viewed as a resource to be managed like any other factor of production. In this approach, the critical task for management is to align the formal structure and HR systems of the organisation so that they drive the strategic objectives of the organisation. This approach is exemplified in the strategic model of HRM developed by Fombrun et al (1984). It has been argued however that an over-emphasis on hard HRM ignores the potential resistance of workers and trade unions, factors which cannot be ignored if business strategy is to succeed (see Hendry, 1995). 2.1.1.2 Soft Approach In contrast, an organisation may place an emphasis on a soft approach to HRM (Storey, 1992 p. 30), in which employees are viewed as a valuable asset whose commitment will assist in achieving organisational success. The objective for organisations in such an approach is to integrate HR policies with the strategic planning process, to gain the willing commitment of employees, to achieve flexibility through avoidance of rigid bureaucratic structures and to improve quality (see Guest, 1987). The most well known soft model of HRM is known as the Harvard Model of HRM (Beer et al 1984), views business strategy as just one situational factor which influences managements approach to HRM. This model identifies a range of other situational factors which influence HR policy choices, including prevailing management philosophy, laws and societal values. In the context of this study, this model is significant in that it identifies a range of stakeholder interests (including unions, government and m anagement) which influence HR policy choices. It is argued that unless HR policies are influenced by key stakeholders, the enterprise will fail to meet the needs of these stakeholders, and ultimately its own objectives (see Beer et al 1984). 2.1.1.3 Ideal Type Model: Integrated links from Personnel to HRM Storey (1992) outlines a further model which illustrates the process involved in shifting from traditional personnel management to HRM. While this is an ideal type model, it comprises features which are significant for this study. For example, it stresses the need for integrated links between beliefs, assumptions, management issues and key elements of HRM. It also identifies key levers of change in the various elements of HRM, including recruitment and selection, training and development and conditions of employment. A strategic approach to HRM can be developed by creating effective policies in these areas (Storey 1992) 2.1.2 The integrative aspects of HRM A key theme running through many of the models is integration, which according to Guest (1987) lies at the heart of HRM. He identifies integration at three levels: integration of HRM policies with business strategy; integration of a set of complementary HRM policies; integration of HRM into the line management function. 2.1.3 The Role of Management According to Storey (1992), best practice indicates that the extent to which the transition process from traditional personnel functions to strategic HRM functions can be achieved will be influenced significantly by the belief and support of senior management in the added value that HRM can contribute to the organisation. More importantly, this belief must be visibly demonstrated, for example by committing additional resources to the development of HR strategy and the building up of HR skills levels. As a first step, the head of HR should be afforded a genuine role in the formulation of key business decisions. This contribution must be an integral part of the business strategy formulation process, so that HR issues are accorded a key priority as opposed to simply being added on to, or indeed excluded from, the core business of the organisation. On an ongoing basis, heads of HR should also be enabled to have a genuine input into decisions taken at top management level which have impli cations for HR. Clearly, if the head of HR is to be enabled to play a genuine role in ensuring that HRM issues become a top management priority, it is important that the professionalism accorded to HR, for example through the development of expertise in integrating HR and business strategies, begins at this level. 2.2 Definitions: Innovative HR Programmes According to Agarwala (2003), defines innovative human resource programmes of a company can be described as: Any intentional introduction or change of HRM program, policy, practice or system designed to influence or adapt employee the skills, behaviours, and interactions of employees and have the potential to provide both the foundation for strategy formulation and the means of strategy implementation that is perceived to be new and creates current capabilities and competencies (Agarwala, 2003). 2.2.1 Innovative HR Programmes According to James (2002), innovative programmes can be grouped into a set of new initiatives which are associated with the process of developing a strategic approach to HRMenhancing its competitiveness. A few of these include: Reducing costs through shared services centres, self-service, and outsourcing. Develop uniform HR processes recognising local regulatory requirements to help foster a low-cost, administrative delivery model. Create a self-service culture for employees and managers. Establish global employee shared services centres focused on delivering HR administrative support to multiple geographic areas, thereby reducing administrative overhead. Outsource key services that can be more efficiently managed and administered externally. Streamlining technology and information management Improve information access to help companies more efficiently manage their human capital assets, provide employees and managers with enhanced access to information, improve HR reporting, and address growing compliance requirements. Reduce HR technology operating costs by consolidating multiple technologies, technical infrastructure, and IT skills. Managing people globally Help enable the company to respond to the interdependencies of global markets by managing human assets globally rather than nationally or regionally thereby improving competitiveness in the international marketplace. Enabling HR to shift its focus from administration to strategy Remove the administrative component of the work of business HR professionals, enabling them to provide more value-added services and to focus on consultative and analytical interactions with line managers. Facilitate HRs transition to a strategic partnership with the company by upgrading talent and skills within the HR function. 2.3 Background: Human Resource Evolution According to Cooke (2003), first Generation HR Transformation represented a fundamental shift in HRs role, from transactions and administration to strategy and business transformation. First Generation HR Transformation focused on changing the existing relationship between employees, managers, and HR, (Randall 2006). With technology as a key enabler and process re-engineering playing a pivotal role, this First Generation effort sought to help make employees more self-sufficient, whilst asking them to take more responsibility for their own careers (Datta et al 2005). It also sought to help remove HR from the middle of the employee/manager relationship by making managers more responsible for handling their employees HR needs. Over the past ten years, HR Transformation has led to a major restructuring of HR operations and processes transforming the way HR services are delivered Cooke (2003). 2.4 UK MNCs: Achieving Global Expansion MNCs in the United Kingdom have long been well established in manufacturing, but in recent years they have emerged as dominant players in the private service sector and have even become involved in the provision of public services (Edwards 2004). Levels of both inward and outward investment are high: foreign direct investment (FDI) into the UK by companies based overseas accounts for almost 9% of the total global stock while UK-based companies investments overseas account for over 14% of the global stock (Edwards 2004). In both instances, the UK is second only to the worlds largest economy, the United States. As a result MNCs are significant employers in Britain; for example, 18% of the workforce in the production sector are employed by overseas-owned companies with many more being employed in the domestic operations of British-owned multinationals (Edwards 2004). For multinational companies in the UK to achieve a successful transition in their drive for global expansion and competitive advantage, multinational companies would require innovative HR programmes which would enable them to anticipate critical workforce trends, shaping and executing business strategy, identifying and addressing people-related risks and regulations, enhancing workforce performance and productivity, and offering new HR services to help a company improve and grow (Edwards et al 2007). 2.5 HR Practices: Effectiveness A number of authors have explored the links between individual HR practices and corporate financial performance. For example, Lam and White (1998) reported that firms HR orientations (measured by the effective recruitment of employees, above average compensation, and extensive training and development) were related to return on assets, growth in sales, and growth in stock values. Using a sample of banks, Richard and Johnson (2001) examined the impact of strategic HRM effectiveness (ratings of how effectively a variety of HR practices were performed) on a number of performance variables. They found that strategic HRM effectiveness was directly related to employee turnover and the relationship between this measure and return on equity was stronger among banks with higher capital intensity (greater investments in branches). In this thesis, HRM would be described in the context of a number of innovative practices which have been proven to enable MNCs manage the transition process in thei r drive for global expansion, thus enabling organizational effectiveness and better performance outcomes. Wright and McMahan (1992) defined innovative human resource programmes as practices and activities employed to enable an organization achieve its goals. These practices are seen as a departure from the traditional HR activities. Delery and Doty (1996) asserts that these practices are key drivers required by MNCs to respond with the right strategy as they expand their operations in different environments (Boselie et al, 2005). 2.6 Empirical Research: Human Resource Factors MNC Global Expansion The drive for global expansion by UK MNCs has necessitated the need for a human resource strategy that would ensure that the company is able to sustain its workforce. This has therefore led to the departure from the traditional HR administrative role to a more robust global HR function which takes cognisance of employee profile, the work and environment demographics, de-skilling, re-skilling and multi-skilling and issues related to outsourcing and synergy of its processes vis-à  -vis work-force reduction Lam and White (1998). The largest survey of employment practice of multinational companies (MNCs) in the UK was carried out by Edwards et al (2007). The key findings from the first large-scale, representative survey of employment practice in MNCs which have operations in the UK. The survey is comprehensive in its coverage of all but the smallest international companies. The findings derive from interviews with senior HR executives in each of 302 multinationals operating in Britain, both overseas- and UK-owned. The findings from the research suggest a connection between human resource practices and the performance of firms, a summary include the following HR programmes stated below. 2.6.1 Innovative HR Practice: Compensation Payment 85% of the firms surveyed were found to have a robust innovative program in terms of compensation and payment. This is achieved through a performance appraisal programme such as upward/peer appraisal and forced distribution. 72% of the MNCs utilized an innovative scheme for managers, through individual ‘output criteria which were supplemented by a range of other criteria including behaviour in relation to desired competencies and to corporate values. 2.6.2 Innovative HR Practice: Training Development Programmes In respect of adoption of high potential innovative training programmes among MNCs, the organisations were asked if both their UK and overseas operations had a management development programme specifically aimed at developing its ‘high potentials or senior management and employee potential. The data show that high potential programmes are adopted by 70% of organisations; 30% of organisations are not using them. Organisations were asked whether they used a global high potential programme that was adopted elsewhere worldwide, or a local, nationally specific programme. Most organisations indicated that their programmes are global in scope. 2.6.3 Innovative HR Practice: Appraisal Activities In comparison of performance appraisal practices and management values, the formal performance appraisal schemes for all three groups are very widespread; over nine out of ten firms have them for key group and managers, and over 80% have them for large occupational groups. Only 3% of firms have no formal appraisals at all. Just over a fifth of firms use ‘forced distributions for the results of appraisal. A clear majority of firms use the results of appraisal as the basis of decisions on redundancy and redeployment. 2.6.4 Innovative HR Practice: Employee Involvement Communication UK-based multinationals most commonly cite ‘setting a broad policy HR programme as being significant or very significant (62% and 66% for training and development and for employee involvement policy respectively). HR advice and consultancy is also relatively prominent for training and development policy (53% significant or very significant), but less so for employee involvement policy (33%). For training and development, and employee involvement, policy, the respective proportions reporting the other means of influence as significant or very significant are: setting detailed HR policies (32% and 31%); monitoring HR policy implementation (39% and 34%); and HR benchmarking and information exchange (42% and 28%). 2.6.5 Innovative HR Practice: Global Knowledge Sharing Diffusion In respect of innovative HR programmes which promote employee knowledge, learning and diffusion, international employee learning mechanisms are used extensively across all MNC both within the UK and across overseas operations. The survey focused on five formal organisational learning mechanisms used by managers that are international in their scope: International projects groups or task forces, which are often used to address specific issues; International formal committees; Secondments involving the placing of MNC employees in external organisations such as suppliers, customers, universities or private RD companies; Expatriate assignments The evidence showed that the most common organisational learning mechanism adopted among the managerial community within MNCs is the informal network (used by 84% of companies). International project groups/task forces also play a prominent role (used by 73% of organisations) and to a lesser degree expatriate assignments (used by 60% of organisations) and international formal committees (53% of organisations). In contrast, secondments are only adopted by around a quarter of the organisations (26%). The majority (82%) of organisations use two or more organisational learning mechanisms, with 53% adopting between three and four of the five organisational learning mechanisms among their managerial community. Around 9% fail to use any of the mechanisms listed. MNCs requiring integration between the UK operations and other sites worldwide are significantly more likely to adopt multiple organisational learning mechanisms (Tregaskis, Glover and Ferner, 2005). However, these national variatio ns show that the form that organisational learning and diffusion take is strongly shaped by the national context of the parent firm. 2.6.6 Innovative HR Practice: UK MNCs Use of Shared Services According to Edwards et al (2007), the findings from the study found that half of the UK MNCs operate shared services centres and have international HR policy formation bodies. They are far less likely, compared to US and other European MNCs, to have a worldwide approach to workforce management. UK firms consistently aim to pay a greater proportion of employees (managers, LOG and key group) in the top or 2nd quartile. Nine in ten UK firm have performance appraisal for their managers while seven in ten have formal appraisals for their LOG (Edwards et al 2007). Use of forced distribution is uncommon as is the use of 360-degree feedback. An overwhelming majority of UK MNCs tend to recognise trade unions for collective bargaining purposes. Formally designed teams and problem-solving groups are commonly found in UK MNCs as are a large number of communication mechanisms with meetings between line managers and employees, newsletters/emails and systematic use of the management chain the most commonly found communication mechanisms. Although the majority of UK MNCs have succession planning and formal management development programmes these tend to be comparatively less than other MNCs. 2.6.7 Use of Expatriates According to Edwards et al 2007, UK MNCs make considerably greater use of parent country expatriates than third country expatriates. This may reflect the short geographical proximity and cultural similarity between the UK and Ireland. UK MNCs tend to have considerable discretion over the various HR policy areas, much more than US firms. 2.6.8 IT Based Networks Services A key development in HR service provision over the past two decades has been the increased use of information technology (IT) (Edwards et al 2007). This is all the more relevant in MNCs, where IT systems may be used to monitor policy implementation and performance, and also to facilitate communications and networking, across borders. It thus provides an insight on the extent to which corporate management has access to HR data on its international operations and can compare performance on HR metrics across sites and countries. Specifically examined was the usage of IT based HR information systems (HRIS) and ‘shared services provision on an international level. In regard to the diffusion of HRIS, respondents were asked whether the worldwide company had an â€Å"HR Information System (such as PeopleSoft or SAP HR) that holds data relating to the firms international workforce†. The responses for both foreign and UK-owned MNCs showed that just over half (54 per cent) of all MNCs in the UK reported the use of HRIS that operates on an international basis. This is a similar to a study by Collings et al (2007), that found in the parallel UK study, where some 52 per cent used such a system (Edwards et al., 2007). However, among MNCs in the UK, a greater proportion of foreign-owned MNCs (56 percent) than UK-owned MNCs (44 per cent) reported the use of HRIS on an international basis (Edwards et al 2007). There were some discernable differences in regard to ownership. As indicated from the study, American firms were the highest users of HRIS (70 per cent), while the ‘rest of the world MNCs is the least likely. This again resonates with the UK findings where US MNCs were among the greatest users of HRIS and Japanese MNCs the lowest (Edwards et al, 2007). The impact of sector on the take-up of HRIS will be fully outlined and placed in the appendix in the forthcoming chapters. Among UK MNCs, the service sector accounted for the greatest number of firms with HRIS. However, among foreign-owned MNCs multi-sector firms were by far the largest users, followed by those in the service. 2.7 Previous Research: Human Resource Factors Previous studies have been utilized in exploring the current human resource innovative programmes that UK MNCs must take into account in their drive for global expansion. One of the main limitations of this review is that it is limited within the context of UK MNCs as there was the lack of evidence to determine the effects of these practices on MNCs operating in the context of both emerging and non-emerging economies. This is in consonance with Ericksen and Dyer (2005) and Wright et als., (2005), both of who also called for further empirical research from different contexts. Gerhart (2005) substantiate the question, to what extent are these innovative HR programmes valid for other context by saying: â€Å"This is a concern because it seems unlikely that one set of HR practices will work equally well no matter what context†. To shed more light on the issue and to further examine the relevance and effects of such programmes, it is important to conduct research in non-US / UK con text, (Katou Budhwar, 2007), especially in emerging economies. 2.8 HR Factors for Global Expansion: Effectiveness Previous research has explored the links between individual HR practices and corporate overall performance. For example, Lam and White (1998) reported that firms HR innovative programmes which are largely measured by the effective recruitment of employees, compensation programme, and extensive training and development were related to return on assets, growth in sales, and growth in stock values. Using a sample of manufacturing companies, multinational servicing companies and global financial institutions, Richard and Johnson (2001) examined the impact of strategic HRM effectiveness (ratings of how effectively a variety of HR practices were performed) on a number of performance variables. The findings suggested that implementation of innovative HR programmes had an effect on employee turnover and the overall performance of the company. 2.8.1 Recruitment Selection According to Terpstra and Rozelles (1993), who compared the relationship between recruiting / selection practices among US / UK MNCs and the firms performance, it was found that there was a strong connection in the companys performance between implementation of the new HR practices and the previous traditional practices, this was focused mainly on recruiting, selection and the use of formal selection procedures and firm performance. Cascio (1991) also states that the improved performances recorded after implementation of such new HR practices are generally substantial. 2.8.2 Employment Training Programmes Russel, Terborg and Powers (1985) in a survey of 30 US MNCs establish a link between the adoption of employment training programs and financial performance. The use of performance appraisals (Borman, 1991) and linking such appraisals with compensation has strongly been connected with the performance of a firm. (Gerhart Milkovich, 1990). Koch and McGrath (1996) reported that firms using more sophisticated staffing practices (planning, recruiting, and selection) had higher labour productivity. 2.8.3 Communication Employee Involvement Huselid (1995) reported that HR practices can influence firm performance through provision of organization structures that support involvement among employees and provides flexibility for improvement of job performance. Green et al (2006) states from findings of a survey that organizations that vertically aligned and horizontally integrated core human resource functions and practices performed better and produced more committed and satisfied HR function employees who exhibited improved individual and organizational performance. 2.8.4 Other Models Most of the work on innovative human resource programmes and the companys performance has been undertaken in the context of MNCs who consider the US and the UK as their home country. The question which arises, though, is whether the UK and US-oriented models are appropriate and representative in other contexts (see debate in special issue of the International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(7), 2001). Other studies analyzed such as Harel and Tzafrir (1999) found that in parts of Asia and the middle-east, innovative HR practices were related to perceived organizational and market performance. Bae and Lawler (2000) did find a significant relationship between HR practices and firm performance in their sample of 140 manufacturing firms in Asia, covering china, Japan and South Korea. Lee and Miller (1999) also found a strong relationship between HR practices and performance among a number of MNCs in Asia, but it is clearly stated that this relationship was most strongly pronounce d among firms using dedicated positioning (marketing differentiation or innovative differentiation) strategies. Bae et al., (2003) in their study of HR strategy in Pacific Rim countries found that the evidence of a strong relationship was however based on strict high-performance work system with a number of variable conditions. Morishima (1998) found support for the contingency perspective in a sample of Japanese companies. Firms with well-integrated high-involvement work practices and firms with well-integrated practices consistent with more traditional Japanese employment strategies both did better than firms with poorly integrated practices. Bae et al (2003) in their investigation of Hong Kong multinational companies found an increase in the firms performance due to certain core innovative HR work practices (training and compensation techniques) with high involvement characteristics. 2.9 Implementation Whilst there are currently limited researches in respect of implementation of innovative HR programs in the context of UK MNCs, however, according to Briscoe and Schuler (2004), Implementation may vary in respect of ‘what and how, thus limiting the value of comparative survey research. Chew and Horowitz (2004) states that the subject of implementation should only be considered in the context of the specific MNC or firm involved, as there are lots of contextual factors and limitations in implementation hence the need to be cautious and dissuade any hasty conclusions when taking on findings from research journals on implementation. Horowitz (2004) states that primary research on implementation would need to focus on contingency approaches and mediating variables affecting the MNC level application. A number of theoretical approaches would also add to the importance of ‘context frameworks such as integration/divergence or universalism versus local particularism, and ethnocen tric, geocentric, regiocentric and polycentric managerial strategies (Chew et al 2004). The author believes that such an extensive approach would not only examine the relationship between human resource innovative practices and relevance, but would take into account the host environment. 2.9.1 Implementation Expansion: Formation of HR Strategies According to Briscoe et al (2004), very little work has been done on the formation of methods for implementing and controlling the transition from specific administration HR services unto innovative programmes that are directly linked to strategic challenges such as increasing revenue through new market entry or mergers and acquisitions. The formation of the UK MNCs corporate strategy has to take into account the balance between those activities that need to be centralized or standardized and the degree of flexibility required by the affiliate to operate in the host country Brock (2005). The formation of HR strategies is distinguishable by variance in terms of level of abstraction and scope. The level of abstraction refers to the level at which the HR strategy is focused. According to Combs et al. (2006), there are different levels of abstraction in the design of a global HR system. Levels vary from recommendations, policy, to operational-level procedures. With a policy-level of abstraction, affiliates are given the freedom to implement their own HR strategies within the broad parameters of the standardized policies. However, with an operational level of abstraction, affiliates are expected to implement a more detailed HR management practice. Scope refers to the extent of HR management practices dealt with in the HR strategy. For example, the HR strategy may have a Effect of Human Resources on Global Expansion of MNCs Effect of Human Resources on Global Expansion of MNCs MBA Literature review The Relevance of Innovative Human Resource Programs to Facilitate Global Expansion of Multinational Companies (MNCs) from the UK. 2. Introduction The activities of multinational companies (MNCs) are at the heart of Britains internationally open and global economy. This global economy has emerged as companies all over the world are joining forces through alliances, mergers, joint ventures, acquisitions, and the like, thus creating the need for a constant mobile workforce and the HRM strategies to support and develop it. This would therefore imply a fundamental shift in the role of human resources from transaction and administration to strategy and business transformation through innovative programmes which supports the global strategy of the company. This section gives an overview of the literature review and the theoretical basis for the forthcoming chapters. The chapter consists of journals, books and research materials which throw more light into Innovative Human Resource Programs to Facilitate Global Expansion of Multinational Companies (MNCs) from the UK. The following were the primary information sources used for the literature review; ACM Digital Library Pro-Quest Direct EBSCO Publishing Gale Group Info Track OCLC First-Search Java Sun Microsystems Library IEEE Library Emerald Database 2.1 Evolution from Personnel Management to HRM According to Guest (1987), the origins of the traditional concept of personnel management can be traced to the post World War One welfare tradition of concern for the basic needs of employees. The developing and mature phases of personnel management from the 1940s to the 1970s saw an increase in the status and professionalism accorded to the personnel function, particularly in relation to industrial relations (IR) matters (see Sparrow 2004). The concept of HRM, as a new strategic approach to the management of people, evolved in the early 1980s (Ericksen 2005). Its evolution was influenced by a range of factors, including increased competitive pressures caused by deregulation and globalisation, and the influence of notable academics in the US and the UK (Ericksen, 2005). Although it has been suggested that HRM may be no more than old style personnel management with a new name (Gunnigle and Flood, 1990), Storey (1992) identifies four features of HRM which distinguish it from traditional personnel management: it is explicitly linked with corporate strategy; it seeks to obtain the commitment of employees rather than their compliance; employee commitment is obtained through an integrated approach to human resource policies (for example, reward, appraisal, selection, training); and unlike personnel management, which is primarily the domain of specialists, HRM is owned by line managers as a means of fostering integration. 2.1.1 Approaches to Human Resource Management 2.1.1.1 Hard Approach If an organisation focuses on control of resources and achievement of strategy, it may adopt a hard approach to HRM (see Storey, 1989) in which employees are viewed as a resource to be managed like any other factor of production. In this approach, the critical task for management is to align the formal structure and HR systems of the organisation so that they drive the strategic objectives of the organisation. This approach is exemplified in the strategic model of HRM developed by Fombrun et al (1984). It has been argued however that an over-emphasis on hard HRM ignores the potential resistance of workers and trade unions, factors which cannot be ignored if business strategy is to succeed (see Hendry, 1995). 2.1.1.2 Soft Approach In contrast, an organisation may place an emphasis on a soft approach to HRM (Storey, 1992 p. 30), in which employees are viewed as a valuable asset whose commitment will assist in achieving organisational success. The objective for organisations in such an approach is to integrate HR policies with the strategic planning process, to gain the willing commitment of employees, to achieve flexibility through avoidance of rigid bureaucratic structures and to improve quality (see Guest, 1987). The most well known soft model of HRM is known as the Harvard Model of HRM (Beer et al 1984), views business strategy as just one situational factor which influences managements approach to HRM. This model identifies a range of other situational factors which influence HR policy choices, including prevailing management philosophy, laws and societal values. In the context of this study, this model is significant in that it identifies a range of stakeholder interests (including unions, government and m anagement) which influence HR policy choices. It is argued that unless HR policies are influenced by key stakeholders, the enterprise will fail to meet the needs of these stakeholders, and ultimately its own objectives (see Beer et al 1984). 2.1.1.3 Ideal Type Model: Integrated links from Personnel to HRM Storey (1992) outlines a further model which illustrates the process involved in shifting from traditional personnel management to HRM. While this is an ideal type model, it comprises features which are significant for this study. For example, it stresses the need for integrated links between beliefs, assumptions, management issues and key elements of HRM. It also identifies key levers of change in the various elements of HRM, including recruitment and selection, training and development and conditions of employment. A strategic approach to HRM can be developed by creating effective policies in these areas (Storey 1992) 2.1.2 The integrative aspects of HRM A key theme running through many of the models is integration, which according to Guest (1987) lies at the heart of HRM. He identifies integration at three levels: integration of HRM policies with business strategy; integration of a set of complementary HRM policies; integration of HRM into the line management function. 2.1.3 The Role of Management According to Storey (1992), best practice indicates that the extent to which the transition process from traditional personnel functions to strategic HRM functions can be achieved will be influenced significantly by the belief and support of senior management in the added value that HRM can contribute to the organisation. More importantly, this belief must be visibly demonstrated, for example by committing additional resources to the development of HR strategy and the building up of HR skills levels. As a first step, the head of HR should be afforded a genuine role in the formulation of key business decisions. This contribution must be an integral part of the business strategy formulation process, so that HR issues are accorded a key priority as opposed to simply being added on to, or indeed excluded from, the core business of the organisation. On an ongoing basis, heads of HR should also be enabled to have a genuine input into decisions taken at top management level which have impli cations for HR. Clearly, if the head of HR is to be enabled to play a genuine role in ensuring that HRM issues become a top management priority, it is important that the professionalism accorded to HR, for example through the development of expertise in integrating HR and business strategies, begins at this level. 2.2 Definitions: Innovative HR Programmes According to Agarwala (2003), defines innovative human resource programmes of a company can be described as: Any intentional introduction or change of HRM program, policy, practice or system designed to influence or adapt employee the skills, behaviours, and interactions of employees and have the potential to provide both the foundation for strategy formulation and the means of strategy implementation that is perceived to be new and creates current capabilities and competencies (Agarwala, 2003). 2.2.1 Innovative HR Programmes According to James (2002), innovative programmes can be grouped into a set of new initiatives which are associated with the process of developing a strategic approach to HRMenhancing its competitiveness. A few of these include: Reducing costs through shared services centres, self-service, and outsourcing. Develop uniform HR processes recognising local regulatory requirements to help foster a low-cost, administrative delivery model. Create a self-service culture for employees and managers. Establish global employee shared services centres focused on delivering HR administrative support to multiple geographic areas, thereby reducing administrative overhead. Outsource key services that can be more efficiently managed and administered externally. Streamlining technology and information management Improve information access to help companies more efficiently manage their human capital assets, provide employees and managers with enhanced access to information, improve HR reporting, and address growing compliance requirements. Reduce HR technology operating costs by consolidating multiple technologies, technical infrastructure, and IT skills. Managing people globally Help enable the company to respond to the interdependencies of global markets by managing human assets globally rather than nationally or regionally thereby improving competitiveness in the international marketplace. Enabling HR to shift its focus from administration to strategy Remove the administrative component of the work of business HR professionals, enabling them to provide more value-added services and to focus on consultative and analytical interactions with line managers. Facilitate HRs transition to a strategic partnership with the company by upgrading talent and skills within the HR function. 2.3 Background: Human Resource Evolution According to Cooke (2003), first Generation HR Transformation represented a fundamental shift in HRs role, from transactions and administration to strategy and business transformation. First Generation HR Transformation focused on changing the existing relationship between employees, managers, and HR, (Randall 2006). With technology as a key enabler and process re-engineering playing a pivotal role, this First Generation effort sought to help make employees more self-sufficient, whilst asking them to take more responsibility for their own careers (Datta et al 2005). It also sought to help remove HR from the middle of the employee/manager relationship by making managers more responsible for handling their employees HR needs. Over the past ten years, HR Transformation has led to a major restructuring of HR operations and processes transforming the way HR services are delivered Cooke (2003). 2.4 UK MNCs: Achieving Global Expansion MNCs in the United Kingdom have long been well established in manufacturing, but in recent years they have emerged as dominant players in the private service sector and have even become involved in the provision of public services (Edwards 2004). Levels of both inward and outward investment are high: foreign direct investment (FDI) into the UK by companies based overseas accounts for almost 9% of the total global stock while UK-based companies investments overseas account for over 14% of the global stock (Edwards 2004). In both instances, the UK is second only to the worlds largest economy, the United States. As a result MNCs are significant employers in Britain; for example, 18% of the workforce in the production sector are employed by overseas-owned companies with many more being employed in the domestic operations of British-owned multinationals (Edwards 2004). For multinational companies in the UK to achieve a successful transition in their drive for global expansion and competitive advantage, multinational companies would require innovative HR programmes which would enable them to anticipate critical workforce trends, shaping and executing business strategy, identifying and addressing people-related risks and regulations, enhancing workforce performance and productivity, and offering new HR services to help a company improve and grow (Edwards et al 2007). 2.5 HR Practices: Effectiveness A number of authors have explored the links between individual HR practices and corporate financial performance. For example, Lam and White (1998) reported that firms HR orientations (measured by the effective recruitment of employees, above average compensation, and extensive training and development) were related to return on assets, growth in sales, and growth in stock values. Using a sample of banks, Richard and Johnson (2001) examined the impact of strategic HRM effectiveness (ratings of how effectively a variety of HR practices were performed) on a number of performance variables. They found that strategic HRM effectiveness was directly related to employee turnover and the relationship between this measure and return on equity was stronger among banks with higher capital intensity (greater investments in branches). In this thesis, HRM would be described in the context of a number of innovative practices which have been proven to enable MNCs manage the transition process in thei r drive for global expansion, thus enabling organizational effectiveness and better performance outcomes. Wright and McMahan (1992) defined innovative human resource programmes as practices and activities employed to enable an organization achieve its goals. These practices are seen as a departure from the traditional HR activities. Delery and Doty (1996) asserts that these practices are key drivers required by MNCs to respond with the right strategy as they expand their operations in different environments (Boselie et al, 2005). 2.6 Empirical Research: Human Resource Factors MNC Global Expansion The drive for global expansion by UK MNCs has necessitated the need for a human resource strategy that would ensure that the company is able to sustain its workforce. This has therefore led to the departure from the traditional HR administrative role to a more robust global HR function which takes cognisance of employee profile, the work and environment demographics, de-skilling, re-skilling and multi-skilling and issues related to outsourcing and synergy of its processes vis-à  -vis work-force reduction Lam and White (1998). The largest survey of employment practice of multinational companies (MNCs) in the UK was carried out by Edwards et al (2007). The key findings from the first large-scale, representative survey of employment practice in MNCs which have operations in the UK. The survey is comprehensive in its coverage of all but the smallest international companies. The findings derive from interviews with senior HR executives in each of 302 multinationals operating in Britain, both overseas- and UK-owned. The findings from the research suggest a connection between human resource practices and the performance of firms, a summary include the following HR programmes stated below. 2.6.1 Innovative HR Practice: Compensation Payment 85% of the firms surveyed were found to have a robust innovative program in terms of compensation and payment. This is achieved through a performance appraisal programme such as upward/peer appraisal and forced distribution. 72% of the MNCs utilized an innovative scheme for managers, through individual ‘output criteria which were supplemented by a range of other criteria including behaviour in relation to desired competencies and to corporate values. 2.6.2 Innovative HR Practice: Training Development Programmes In respect of adoption of high potential innovative training programmes among MNCs, the organisations were asked if both their UK and overseas operations had a management development programme specifically aimed at developing its ‘high potentials or senior management and employee potential. The data show that high potential programmes are adopted by 70% of organisations; 30% of organisations are not using them. Organisations were asked whether they used a global high potential programme that was adopted elsewhere worldwide, or a local, nationally specific programme. Most organisations indicated that their programmes are global in scope. 2.6.3 Innovative HR Practice: Appraisal Activities In comparison of performance appraisal practices and management values, the formal performance appraisal schemes for all three groups are very widespread; over nine out of ten firms have them for key group and managers, and over 80% have them for large occupational groups. Only 3% of firms have no formal appraisals at all. Just over a fifth of firms use ‘forced distributions for the results of appraisal. A clear majority of firms use the results of appraisal as the basis of decisions on redundancy and redeployment. 2.6.4 Innovative HR Practice: Employee Involvement Communication UK-based multinationals most commonly cite ‘setting a broad policy HR programme as being significant or very significant (62% and 66% for training and development and for employee involvement policy respectively). HR advice and consultancy is also relatively prominent for training and development policy (53% significant or very significant), but less so for employee involvement policy (33%). For training and development, and employee involvement, policy, the respective proportions reporting the other means of influence as significant or very significant are: setting detailed HR policies (32% and 31%); monitoring HR policy implementation (39% and 34%); and HR benchmarking and information exchange (42% and 28%). 2.6.5 Innovative HR Practice: Global Knowledge Sharing Diffusion In respect of innovative HR programmes which promote employee knowledge, learning and diffusion, international employee learning mechanisms are used extensively across all MNC both within the UK and across overseas operations. The survey focused on five formal organisational learning mechanisms used by managers that are international in their scope: International projects groups or task forces, which are often used to address specific issues; International formal committees; Secondments involving the placing of MNC employees in external organisations such as suppliers, customers, universities or private RD companies; Expatriate assignments The evidence showed that the most common organisational learning mechanism adopted among the managerial community within MNCs is the informal network (used by 84% of companies). International project groups/task forces also play a prominent role (used by 73% of organisations) and to a lesser degree expatriate assignments (used by 60% of organisations) and international formal committees (53% of organisations). In contrast, secondments are only adopted by around a quarter of the organisations (26%). The majority (82%) of organisations use two or more organisational learning mechanisms, with 53% adopting between three and four of the five organisational learning mechanisms among their managerial community. Around 9% fail to use any of the mechanisms listed. MNCs requiring integration between the UK operations and other sites worldwide are significantly more likely to adopt multiple organisational learning mechanisms (Tregaskis, Glover and Ferner, 2005). However, these national variatio ns show that the form that organisational learning and diffusion take is strongly shaped by the national context of the parent firm. 2.6.6 Innovative HR Practice: UK MNCs Use of Shared Services According to Edwards et al (2007), the findings from the study found that half of the UK MNCs operate shared services centres and have international HR policy formation bodies. They are far less likely, compared to US and other European MNCs, to have a worldwide approach to workforce management. UK firms consistently aim to pay a greater proportion of employees (managers, LOG and key group) in the top or 2nd quartile. Nine in ten UK firm have performance appraisal for their managers while seven in ten have formal appraisals for their LOG (Edwards et al 2007). Use of forced distribution is uncommon as is the use of 360-degree feedback. An overwhelming majority of UK MNCs tend to recognise trade unions for collective bargaining purposes. Formally designed teams and problem-solving groups are commonly found in UK MNCs as are a large number of communication mechanisms with meetings between line managers and employees, newsletters/emails and systematic use of the management chain the most commonly found communication mechanisms. Although the majority of UK MNCs have succession planning and formal management development programmes these tend to be comparatively less than other MNCs. 2.6.7 Use of Expatriates According to Edwards et al 2007, UK MNCs make considerably greater use of parent country expatriates than third country expatriates. This may reflect the short geographical proximity and cultural similarity between the UK and Ireland. UK MNCs tend to have considerable discretion over the various HR policy areas, much more than US firms. 2.6.8 IT Based Networks Services A key development in HR service provision over the past two decades has been the increased use of information technology (IT) (Edwards et al 2007). This is all the more relevant in MNCs, where IT systems may be used to monitor policy implementation and performance, and also to facilitate communications and networking, across borders. It thus provides an insight on the extent to which corporate management has access to HR data on its international operations and can compare performance on HR metrics across sites and countries. Specifically examined was the usage of IT based HR information systems (HRIS) and ‘shared services provision on an international level. In regard to the diffusion of HRIS, respondents were asked whether the worldwide company had an â€Å"HR Information System (such as PeopleSoft or SAP HR) that holds data relating to the firms international workforce†. The responses for both foreign and UK-owned MNCs showed that just over half (54 per cent) of all MNCs in the UK reported the use of HRIS that operates on an international basis. This is a similar to a study by Collings et al (2007), that found in the parallel UK study, where some 52 per cent used such a system (Edwards et al., 2007). However, among MNCs in the UK, a greater proportion of foreign-owned MNCs (56 percent) than UK-owned MNCs (44 per cent) reported the use of HRIS on an international basis (Edwards et al 2007). There were some discernable differences in regard to ownership. As indicated from the study, American firms were the highest users of HRIS (70 per cent), while the ‘rest of the world MNCs is the least likely. This again resonates with the UK findings where US MNCs were among the greatest users of HRIS and Japanese MNCs the lowest (Edwards et al, 2007). The impact of sector on the take-up of HRIS will be fully outlined and placed in the appendix in the forthcoming chapters. Among UK MNCs, the service sector accounted for the greatest number of firms with HRIS. However, among foreign-owned MNCs multi-sector firms were by far the largest users, followed by those in the service. 2.7 Previous Research: Human Resource Factors Previous studies have been utilized in exploring the current human resource innovative programmes that UK MNCs must take into account in their drive for global expansion. One of the main limitations of this review is that it is limited within the context of UK MNCs as there was the lack of evidence to determine the effects of these practices on MNCs operating in the context of both emerging and non-emerging economies. This is in consonance with Ericksen and Dyer (2005) and Wright et als., (2005), both of who also called for further empirical research from different contexts. Gerhart (2005) substantiate the question, to what extent are these innovative HR programmes valid for other context by saying: â€Å"This is a concern because it seems unlikely that one set of HR practices will work equally well no matter what context†. To shed more light on the issue and to further examine the relevance and effects of such programmes, it is important to conduct research in non-US / UK con text, (Katou Budhwar, 2007), especially in emerging economies. 2.8 HR Factors for Global Expansion: Effectiveness Previous research has explored the links between individual HR practices and corporate overall performance. For example, Lam and White (1998) reported that firms HR innovative programmes which are largely measured by the effective recruitment of employees, compensation programme, and extensive training and development were related to return on assets, growth in sales, and growth in stock values. Using a sample of manufacturing companies, multinational servicing companies and global financial institutions, Richard and Johnson (2001) examined the impact of strategic HRM effectiveness (ratings of how effectively a variety of HR practices were performed) on a number of performance variables. The findings suggested that implementation of innovative HR programmes had an effect on employee turnover and the overall performance of the company. 2.8.1 Recruitment Selection According to Terpstra and Rozelles (1993), who compared the relationship between recruiting / selection practices among US / UK MNCs and the firms performance, it was found that there was a strong connection in the companys performance between implementation of the new HR practices and the previous traditional practices, this was focused mainly on recruiting, selection and the use of formal selection procedures and firm performance. Cascio (1991) also states that the improved performances recorded after implementation of such new HR practices are generally substantial. 2.8.2 Employment Training Programmes Russel, Terborg and Powers (1985) in a survey of 30 US MNCs establish a link between the adoption of employment training programs and financial performance. The use of performance appraisals (Borman, 1991) and linking such appraisals with compensation has strongly been connected with the performance of a firm. (Gerhart Milkovich, 1990). Koch and McGrath (1996) reported that firms using more sophisticated staffing practices (planning, recruiting, and selection) had higher labour productivity. 2.8.3 Communication Employee Involvement Huselid (1995) reported that HR practices can influence firm performance through provision of organization structures that support involvement among employees and provides flexibility for improvement of job performance. Green et al (2006) states from findings of a survey that organizations that vertically aligned and horizontally integrated core human resource functions and practices performed better and produced more committed and satisfied HR function employees who exhibited improved individual and organizational performance. 2.8.4 Other Models Most of the work on innovative human resource programmes and the companys performance has been undertaken in the context of MNCs who consider the US and the UK as their home country. The question which arises, though, is whether the UK and US-oriented models are appropriate and representative in other contexts (see debate in special issue of the International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(7), 2001). Other studies analyzed such as Harel and Tzafrir (1999) found that in parts of Asia and the middle-east, innovative HR practices were related to perceived organizational and market performance. Bae and Lawler (2000) did find a significant relationship between HR practices and firm performance in their sample of 140 manufacturing firms in Asia, covering china, Japan and South Korea. Lee and Miller (1999) also found a strong relationship between HR practices and performance among a number of MNCs in Asia, but it is clearly stated that this relationship was most strongly pronounce d among firms using dedicated positioning (marketing differentiation or innovative differentiation) strategies. Bae et al., (2003) in their study of HR strategy in Pacific Rim countries found that the evidence of a strong relationship was however based on strict high-performance work system with a number of variable conditions. Morishima (1998) found support for the contingency perspective in a sample of Japanese companies. Firms with well-integrated high-involvement work practices and firms with well-integrated practices consistent with more traditional Japanese employment strategies both did better than firms with poorly integrated practices. Bae et al (2003) in their investigation of Hong Kong multinational companies found an increase in the firms performance due to certain core innovative HR work practices (training and compensation techniques) with high involvement characteristics. 2.9 Implementation Whilst there are currently limited researches in respect of implementation of innovative HR programs in the context of UK MNCs, however, according to Briscoe and Schuler (2004), Implementation may vary in respect of ‘what and how, thus limiting the value of comparative survey research. Chew and Horowitz (2004) states that the subject of implementation should only be considered in the context of the specific MNC or firm involved, as there are lots of contextual factors and limitations in implementation hence the need to be cautious and dissuade any hasty conclusions when taking on findings from research journals on implementation. Horowitz (2004) states that primary research on implementation would need to focus on contingency approaches and mediating variables affecting the MNC level application. A number of theoretical approaches would also add to the importance of ‘context frameworks such as integration/divergence or universalism versus local particularism, and ethnocen tric, geocentric, regiocentric and polycentric managerial strategies (Chew et al 2004). The author believes that such an extensive approach would not only examine the relationship between human resource innovative practices and relevance, but would take into account the host environment. 2.9.1 Implementation Expansion: Formation of HR Strategies According to Briscoe et al (2004), very little work has been done on the formation of methods for implementing and controlling the transition from specific administration HR services unto innovative programmes that are directly linked to strategic challenges such as increasing revenue through new market entry or mergers and acquisitions. The formation of the UK MNCs corporate strategy has to take into account the balance between those activities that need to be centralized or standardized and the degree of flexibility required by the affiliate to operate in the host country Brock (2005). The formation of HR strategies is distinguishable by variance in terms of level of abstraction and scope. The level of abstraction refers to the level at which the HR strategy is focused. According to Combs et al. (2006), there are different levels of abstraction in the design of a global HR system. Levels vary from recommendations, policy, to operational-level procedures. With a policy-level of abstraction, affiliates are given the freedom to implement their own HR strategies within the broad parameters of the standardized policies. However, with an operational level of abstraction, affiliates are expected to implement a more detailed HR management practice. Scope refers to the extent of HR management practices dealt with in the HR strategy. For example, the HR strategy may have a